Historically,
the metaphor of slavery “was capable of multiple connotations.”[1] It is sometimes used as
“servants of God” (δούλους – Acts 2:18), “fellow servants” (σύνδουλοι – Rev.
6:11), in the singular “slave” (doulē – Luke 1:38), “slaves of Christ” (douloi
Christou – Eph. 6:6) and “fellow- slave” (syndoulou – Col. 1:7). It is defined as “someone whose person and
service belongs wholly to another,”[2] resulting in “the total
subjection of the slave and the absence of the slave’s freedom to choose his action or movement.”
The
two types of slavery concerned with this discussion are: (1) physical/literal –
the actual imposition over a person; and (2) metaphorical/spiritual – “an
inward relationship in which a person is under the influence of another.”[3] Keep in mind that first
century Christianity was primarily influenced by Judaism; therefore any use of
the slave motif would have first a Jewish bent, then the historical
Greek/Gentile meaning. However, Harris contends that the reader should consider
the slave motif within the framework of Jewish, Greek and Roman conceptual
backgrounds.[4]
Based
on the historical use of the slavery motif, we can therefore conclude that the
New Testament (N.T.) neither endorses nor reject slavery, and draws both
positive and negative images from it.[5]
Negatively, the Bible
depicts both male and females as being enslaved to: the law (Gal. 5:24), false
gods (Gal. 4:8), passions and pleasures (Tit. 3:3), depravity (2 Pet. 2:19),
and the fear of death (not an exhaustive list). On the positive side, believers
having acquired the status of in-Christ are called: to be “slaves of God” (1 Pet. 2:16), “of
one-another” (2 Cor. 4:5), to the humble service of others (Gal. 5:13; 1 Pet. 1:12), to hospitality (1 Pet. 4:9)
and to carry one another’s burdens (Gal. 6:2). The presence of “one-another
commands” in the N.T. (cf. Eph. 4:2; Col. 3:16; 1 Thess. 4:18) suggest that
there was clear distinction in social status during the times of the original
audience and that “the early believers rejected the validity of the slave-free
antithesis.”[6]
Still, N.T. doctrine has “established the personal dignity of slaves” as they
too are made in the image of God. Slaves are encouraged to walk in obedience to
their earthly masters, which is service to Christ that will be rewarded (Eph.
6:5-7), and walking in reverence to God (a higher calling – cf. 1 Pet.
2:18-23), given their status under Christian liberty (Gal. 3:28; 1 Cor. 12:13;
Col. 3:11; the book of Philemon). [7] Therefore, within the New
Messianic community, slaves are free with all the rights and benefits as sons
of God (Rev. 21:7). Keep in mind as well, the Bible also rejects the abuse, unfair treatment
and the trafficking of slaves (Col. 4:1;Eph. 6:9;Exod. 21:16; Deut. 24:7), and
the reader should not assume that the absence of explicit language condemning
slavery is tacit approval of the practice.
The Shepherd
Simply
put, ‘Shepherding” deals with the care of sheep and goats. Related to this practice
is the term “Pastoralism,” “which describes the work of people-groups whose
primary source of subsistence and/or production comes from flocks/herds of
sheep, goats, cattle, camel, pigs or donkeys.”[8] Animal husbandry is
another closely related term used to describe the practice. Perhaps the imagery
of shepherd and sheep most familiar to the contemporary reader is that of “a gathered flock lying down in green
pastures”[9] under the watchful eyes of
a shepherd with his staff/rod. As a matter of practice, the shepherds ensured
the safety of the flock, leading with compassion, provided access to vegetation
and water to ensure a “right balance of eating, drinking and resting.”[10]
It
is not difficult to understand why the shepherd motif serves as a model for
leadership in biblical literature; after all, Jesus called himself “the Good
Shepherd” (John 10:11-18). The Bible is replete with pastoral metaphors. The
shepherd’s staff/rod was used to protect, redirect (cf. Ps. 23:4); it also
symbolized authority, rule and power (cf. Ps. 110:2; Exod. 7:9-10); a weapon
(cf. 2 Sam. 23:21; Isa. 28:27); as
discipline (Prov. 23:24). Symbolically, the sheep hearing the shepherd’s voice became
the basis of the N.T. believer’s relationship to Christ (Jn. 10:3-4, 11-16).
Now,
in terms of leadership, a “responsible shepherd knows every member of his flock
(history, health, habits, idiosyncrasies).[11] So too, “pastoral imagery
reflects notions of peoplehood, leadership, and rulership, both divine and
human.”[12] Historically, rulers have
deemed themselves shepherd-kings/deities (e.g. Marduk, Gudea and Akkadian[13]) who ruled over “human
flock” with a scepter/staff. The imagery carried over into Egyptian and Greek
history where kings were expected to provide for and to protect their people. ‘If
properly motivated by love and led by understanding, a good shepherd follows
his inclinations for the good of all.”[14]
As
far as biblical leadership, Moses and David are exemplary types of
shepherd-leaders. Moses’ early influence was forged in royalty, then he was
called to lead sheep in the wilderness, then assigned primary responsibility
for leading God’s people Israel. David was a shepherd-boy who became the
shepherd-king over God’s people. It is within this context of shepherd-leader
that God establishes his covenantal commitment to his people – his sheep/flock;
having “rule over their lives and the agent of their deliverance.”[15] Having delivered his
people from slavery through the shepherd Moses, a dwelling place is set up to
symbolically house his presence (Exod. 25:8). He would provide protection for
his sheep (Deut. 23:14; Num. 10:35, 14:7-9). The “presence of God is
consistently equated with divine provision.”[16] His sheep would also experience divine
healing and health (Exod. 15:26; Num. 21:8-9) through God’s life-giving power
(later declared by Jesus the Messiah to the Samaritan woman (Jn 4:14).
Under
the leadership of Moses (a prophet appointed by God to shepherd his people –
Hos. 12:13), the reader will notice shepherd motifs at work – use of the staff
by the Red sea (Exod. 14:16-21 - power and provision), use of the staff by the
rock (Exod. 17:1-7); the shepherd who provides for his sheep (Exod. 16:1-21);
providing rest (Exod. 33:14; Num. 10:33), guidance (Exod. 13:21,15:13; Psa.
23:2, 78:52-4); priest (identifies with, suffers with and makes intercession on
behalf of the flock to God – Ex. 32:10, 30, 32; Deut. 1:37).
King
David’s entry into the biblical narrative affirms God’s role as “the divine
owner of his flock (Israel – cf. 2 Sam. 7:7.8.22-24. Again, David is but one
example of a shepherd-king. But the theme of the shepherd motif is that the
divine shepherd protects, provides for, rules over the affairs of, is concerned
about, is compassionate and merciful towards, and provides for the salvation of
his people/his flock (Ps. 74:1; 80:1; 23; Isa. 32:15-18).
[1] Murray J. Harris, Slave of Christ: A New Testament Metaphor
for Total Devotion to Christ, (Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press,
1999), 20.
[2] Harris, Slave of Christ, 25-6.
[3] Harris, 27.
[4] Harris, 27.
[5] Harris, 53.
[6] Harris, 50.
[9] Laniak, Shepherds, 55.
[10] Laniak, 55.
[11] Laniak, 57.
[12] Laniak, 58.
[15] Laniak, 87.
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